Qffke  of  Expe7tnient  ^tati^ins  '/ 

Ljihr<Lry.  i  ~-  -: 

Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 
BULLETIN  201  JANUARY,  1918 


ECONOMY  IN  FEEDING  THE  FAMILY 


III 

Food  Oils  and  Fats 

By  E.  M.  BAILEY 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Salad  Oils 

Olive  Oil 204 

Cotton  Seed  Oil 204 

Corn  Oil 204 

Peanut  Oil 204 

Other  Oils 205 

Summary  of  results  of  inspection 20S 

Cooking  Fats. 

butteh  and  itb  substitutes. 

Butter .• 208 

Renovated  Butter 208 

Oleomargarine 208 

Nut  Margarine 209 

MiLK-BuTTER  Mixture 210 


The  Bulletins  of  this  Station  are  mailed  free  to  citizens  of  Connecti- 
cut who  apply  for  them,  and  to  others  as  far  as  the  editions  permit. 


CONNECTICUT  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

OFFICERS  AND  STAFF. 


BOARD  OF  CONTROL. 
His  Excellency,  Marcus  H.  Holcomb,  ex-officio,  President. 

James  H.  Webb,  Vice  President Hamden 

George  A.  Hopson,  Secretary Wallingford 

E.  H.  Jenkins,  Director  and   Treasurer New  Haven 

Joseph  W.  Alsop Avon 

Wilson  H.  Lee Orange 

Administration.  E.  H.  Jenkins,  Ph.D..  Director  and  Treasurer, 

Miss  V.  E.  Cole,  Librarian  and  Stenographer. 
Miss  L.  M.  Brautlbcht,   Bookkeeper  and  Stenographer. 
William  Veitch,  In  charge  of  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

Chemistry. 
Analytical  Laboratory.  tJoHN  Phillips  Street,  M.S. 

E.  Monroe  Bailey,  Ph.D.,  Chemist  in  charge. 

C.  B.  Morison.  B.S.,  C.  E.  Shepherd,  I  ^.^sistants. 

M.  d'Esopo,  Ph.B.  » 

Hugo  Lange,  Laboratory   Helper. 

V.  L.  Churchill,  Sampling  Agent. 

Protein  Research.  T.  B.  Osborne,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc,  Chemist  in  Charge. 

Miss  E.  L.  Ferry,  M.S.,  Assistant. 

Botany.  G.  P.  Clinton,  Sc.D.,  Botanist. 

E.   M.  Stoddard,  B.S.,  Assistant   Botanist. 
Florence  A.  McCorsock,  Ph.D.,  Scientific  Assistant. 
G.  E.  Graham,  General  Assistant. 

Entomology.  W.  E.  Britton,  Ph.D.,   Entomologist;  State  Entomologist. 

B.  H.  Walden,  B.Agr.,  First  Assistant. 

Q.  S.  LowRY,  B.Sc,  I.  W.  Davis,  B.Sc,   ) 

M.  P.  Zappe,  B.S..  i  Assistants. 

Miss  G.  A.  Foote,  B.A.,  Stenographer. 

Forestry.  Walter  O.  Fillby,  Forester;  also  State  Forester 

and  State  Forest  Fire  Warden. 
A.  E.   Moss,   M.F.,  Assistant  Slate  and  Station   Forester. 
Miss  E.  L.  Avery,  Stenographer. 

Plant  Breeding.  Donald  P.  Jones,  M.S.,  Plant  Breeder. 

C.  D.  Hubbell,  Assistant. 

Vegetable  Growing.  W.  C.  Pelton,  B.S. 

t  Absent  on  leave.     In  U.  S.  Service. 


Food  Oils  and  Fats 


Chemically  all  fats  resemble  one  another  in  that  they  are  com- 
binations of  fatty  acids  with  glycerin.  Physically  they  differ  in 
that  some  are  liquid  while  others  are  solid.  The  term  "fixed"  or 
"fatty  oil"  is  generally  applied  to  those  fats  which,  at  the  ordinary 
temperatures,  remain  in  the  liquid  condition,  but  chemical  in- 
dustry has  eliminated  this  natural  distinction  by  the  introduction 
of  the  "hydrogenating"  or  "hardening"  process  which  converts 
liquid  oils  into  the  solid  state. 

As  food  sttiifs  fats  belong  to  the  same  category  as  sugars,  i.  e., 
they  are  chiefly  energy  producers,  in  contrast  with  protein  foods 
which  are,  in  addition,  tissue  builders.  When  taken  with  other 
food  in  the  diet,  fats  (and  sugars)  have  the  property  of  reducing 
the  protein  requirements  of  the  body  and  this  is  what  is  meant 
by  their  so-called  protein-sparing  action.  The  calorific  (energy- 
producing)  value  of  fat  is  about  2.25  times  as  great  as  that  of  either 
protein  or  sugar,  and  it  is  practically  the  same  regardless  of  the 
particular  soiirce  of  the  fat  or  oil,  or  whether  it  be  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin.  By  accurate  measurement  it  has  been  found 
that  one  ounce  of  fat  yields  264  calories  to  the  body.  On  the 
basis  of  calorific  values,  substitutions  among  fatty  foods  in  the 
diet  may  be  made  with  considerable  freedom,  but  personal  toler- 
ance, preference,  or  prejudice,  will  influence  the  choice  in  this  as 
in  other  types  of  foods. 

Although  so  nearly  alike  in  energy -producing  capacity,  the  fats 
show  differences  in  other  nutritional  aspects.  We  refer  especially 
to  the  growth-promoting  properties  possessed  by  some  fats  and 
lacking  in  others.  It  has  been  shown^  that  butter  possesses  this 
peculiar  efficiency  to  a  marked  degree  and  that  the  efficiency 
resides  in  the  butter  fat  itself.  This  shows  us  an  additional  and 
important  reason  for  the  effectiveness  of  milk  as  a  food  for  children. 
Other  fats  show  this  property,  among  them  beef  fat,  and,  as 

^Osborne  and  Mendel  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  16.  423-37  1913;  ibid  20, 
379-90,  1915. 


202  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION    BULLETIN    20I. 

might  be  expected  from  their  ingredients,  the  oleomargarines 
made  of  the  so-called  oleo-oil  from  beef  fat.  Lard  and  olive  oil 
lack  this  peculiar  property,  as  do  those  margarines  also  which  are 
made  from  the  commonly  used  vegetable  fats  and  hydrogenated 
oils;  as  has  been  shown  by  Halliburton  and  Drummond.'  The 
particular  substances  or  properties  responsible  for  this  phenomenon 
are  obscure,  and  as  yet  imidentified  components  of  the  fats.  They 
have  been  detected  in  other  types  of  food,  and  for  lack  of  better 
definition  have  been  called  "vitamines"  or  "accessory  diet  factors." 

Fatty  foods  not  possessing  the  virtue  just  mentioned  should 
not,  however,  be  discriminated  against  on  this  account  when  used 
in  the  ordinary  liberal  diet,  but  it  would  appear  to  be  inadvisable 
to  eliminate  butter  entirely  from  the  menu,  particularly  that  of 
children. 

We  have  referred  already  to  the  process  of  "hydrogenation, " 
by  which  the  physical  and  chemical  characters  of  fats  are  modified, 
the  conspicuous  physical  change  being  that  liquid  fats  are  hardened 
and  converted  into  solids.  The  question  of  the  wholesomeness 
and  digestibility  of  fats  so  treated  at  once  presented  itself.  The 
considerable  amount  of  work  which  has  been  done  on  this  subject 
has  not  resulted  in  anything  to  prejudice  us  against  the  use  of 
products  so  treated.  Upon  this  point  EUis^  says :  "It  seems  to  be 
generally  accepted  by  those  who  have  investigated  the  matter, 
that  the  hydrogenated  oils  have  as  desirable  a  degree  of  digesti- 
bility as  tlie  oils  from  which  they  are  derived."  The  debate  as 
to  their  suitability  for  food  has  centered  chiefly  upon  the  presence 
of  certain  metals,  more  particularly  nickel,  which  are  used  in  the 
process  of  their  manufacture.  The  amounts  of  nickel  retained  in 
the  finished  product,  in  the  case  of  some  hardened  cottonseed  oils, 
has  been  determined  and  quantities  ranging  from  .020  to  .075 
milligrams  per  kilo  (1,000  grams)  found.  The  significance  of  such 
figures  is  better  understood  by  comparing  them  with  the  quantities 
of  nickel  acquired  by  various  foods  prepared  in  nickel-lined 
cooking  utensils  which  have  been  in  common  use  for  some  years. 
Spinach  contained  from  25  to  27  milligrams  per  kilo;  peas,  12  to 
16;  plimis,  35;  fruit  cooked  in  2%  acetic  acid  (about  one  half  the 
acid  strength  of  ordinary  vinegar),  65  to  67;  cabbage,  83;  sotir- 
kraut,  127;  potato,  80.    No  injurious  effects  have  been  attributed 


'  Jour,  of  Physiol.,  LI.,  p  250. 

*  Hydrogenation  of  Oils,  Van  Nostrand  &  Co.,  1914,  p.  144. 


FOOD    OILS    AND    FATS.  203 

to  the  use  of  foods  so  prepared,  yet  it  is  seen  that  they  contain 
amounts  of  nickel  one  thousand  or  more  times  greater  than  has 
been  found  in  the  hardened  oils  examined.  However,  it  is  perfectly 
obvious  that  this  phase  in  the  production  of  hydrogenated  products 
should  be  carefully  controlled. 

The  inspection  of  foodstuffs  such  as,  of  necessity,  more  and 
more  engrosses  the  attention  of  this  laboratory,  involves  tests  for 
purity  and  tests  to  determine  truthfulness  of  label  or  guaranty. 
When  such  inspections  result  in  the  detection  of  substances  posi- 
tively poisonous  or  deleterious  to  digestion  and  health,  their  value 
from  the  standpoint  of  public  health  is  obvious  to  all.  But  in- 
stances of  flagrant  and  vicious  adulteration  are  largely  passing 
out  of  the  experience  of  the  food  control  chemist  of  to-day,  so 
that  frequently  the  results  of  his  labors  lie  within  the  realm  of 
public  health  in  its  broader  sense,  which  includes  public  economy. 
The  substitution  of  one  edible  oil  wholly  or  in  part  for  another, 
and  the  sale  of  such  substitute  does  not  constitute  a  sin  against 
the  consumer's  digestion,  but  it  does  defraud  him  of  the  difference 
in  commercial  values  between  the  product  he  actually  gets  and 
that  which  he  thinks  he  is  buying.  And  now  more  than  ever 
before  he  is  anxious  to  protect  himself  in  this  direction.  It  is 
intended  that  our  analyses  should  guide  the  consumer  to  intelligent 
purchasing ;  aid  him  to  a  better  appreciation  of  comparative  food 
values,  and  foster  alertness  to  the  deceptions  of  flashy  labels  and 
cunning  advertising  literature.  Particularly  at  this  time  we  desire 
to  help  him  to  co-operate  in  the  program  of  economy  that  is  being 
urged  upon  us. 

These  general  considerations  seem  justified,  in  view  of  recent 
inquiries  which  have  come  to  us  on  this  subject.  In  addition  we 
shall  indicate  briefly  the  source,  preparation  and  composition  of 
the  principal  fatty  foods  and  summarize  our  accumulated  experi- 
ence with  them.  We  shall  include  also  some  analyses  not  hereto- 
fore published,  and  some  data,  not  our  own,  which  may  be  of  inter- 
est from  a  culinary  standpoint. 

Any  classification  of  edible  fats  on  the  basis  of  their  domestic 
uses  will  necessarily  include  the  same  fat  in  two  or  more  classes, 
but  for  convenience  we  shall  group  them  as  follows :  (i)  Salad  Oils. 
(2)  Cooking  fats  and  (3)  Butter  and  its  substitutes. 


204  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION    BULLETIN    20I. 

SALAD  OILS. 

Olive  Oil.  The  oil  supplied  by  the  fruit  of  the  oHve  tree  has  been 
used  as  a  food  by  man  since  the  earHest  times.  Gro-^Ti  originally 
in  oriental  countries,  its  cultivation  and  use  have  extended  through 
Mediterranean  countries  to  South  America,  and  it  is  now  grovm  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  the  United  States,  notably  in  California 
and  Arizona. 

About  50%  of  the  fleshy  part  of  the  olive  fruit  is  oil.  The  best 
grades  of  oil  are  prepared  from  fruit  picked  by  hand  just  before 
maturity.  These  are  crushed  and  the  oil  removed  by  gentle 
pressure,  the  first  run  being  called  "Virgin"  oil  or  Sublime.  This 
is  generally  characterized  by  a,  distinct  greenish  tinge  of  color  due 
to  the  chlorophyll  which  is  associated  with  the  oil  in  the  plant  cells. 
Genuine  oil  may,  however,  lack  this  characteristic  and  may  be 
pale  or  even  deep  yellow.  Admixtiures  of  peanut,  sesame,  poppy 
seed,  com  and  cottonseed  oils  with  olive  oil  are  much  less  common 
than  formerly,  although  blending  of  inferior  grades;  i.  e.,  oil  ob- 
tained from  repressings  of  the  olive  pulp,  with  higher  grades  is 
practiced  to  some  extent  in  Europe. 

Cottonseed  Oil.  A  keen  competitor  of  olive  oil  for  table  use  is 
the  refined  oil  of  the  cottonseed.  Although  produced  in  coimtries 
of  Etirope,  Asia  and  South  America,  it  is  essentially  an  industry 
of  the  United  States,  where  methods  of  refining  lead  those  of  other 
countries.  The  oil  is  unfit  for  use  until  it  has  been  refined,  which 
process  includes  deodorizing,  decolorizing  and  "chilling,"  the  latter 
step  removing  the  high-melting  fatty  constituent  (stearin) ,  which 
woiild  cause  the  oil  to  "cloud"  in  cold  climates. 

Corn  Oil.  In  the  process  of  making  starch  and  glucose  from 
maize  or  Indian  com  the  germ  of  the  seed  is  removed.  This  germ 
contains  about  15%  of  oil  and  yields  the  com  oil  now  appearing 
in  our  market.  It  is  golden  yellow  in  color  and  has  a  pleasant 
odor  and  taste. 

A  sample  of  com  oil  examined  in  this  laboratory^  was  found  to 
be  mixed  with  other  oils,  chiefly  cottonseed  oil.  Thus  early  has 
this  product  been  dignified  and  commercially  flattered  by  adulte- 
ration. 

Peanut  Oil.  Next  in  importance  is  peanut  oil,  of  which  there  is 
an  increasing  production  in  the  United  States.     Like  cottonseed 

1  Connecticut  Food  &  Drug  Report,  1905,  p.  121. 


SALAD    OILS.  205 

oil  it  must  be  refined  before  it  is  marketable  as  a  food  oil.  The 
refined  oil  has  a  distinct  nutty  flavor  which  commends  itself  to 
some  tastes. 

Other  Oils.  Oils  of  the  poppy-seed,  rape,  sesame  and  sunflower 
are  not  used  alone  to  any  extent  in  this  cotmtry,  but  some  of  them 
may  occur  in  admixture  with  the  oils  described  above,  either  as 
adulterants  or  in  legally  marked  compounds. 

The  commercial  value  of  the  oils  described  is  in  about  the  fol- 
lowing order:  olive,  peanut,  com,  cottonseed,  the  values  of  the 
others  being  intermediate  between  peanut  and  com  oils.^ 

Summary  of  the  Results  of  Our  Inspections  of  These 

Products. 

Between  500  and  600  samples  of  olive  oil  have  been  examined 
in  this  laboratory  since  1897,  chiefly  represented  by  six  inspections. 
The  percentage  of  total  adtilteration  decreased  from  a  maximimi 
of  40%  found  in  1900,  to  13.7%  in  1909.  It  has  been  found  that 
this  product,  put  up  in  sealed  containers,  is  freer  from  adulteration 
than  that  purchased  in  bulk  from  druggists,  although  the  quality 
of  druggists'  goods  has  shown  improvement.  The  general  im- 
provement is  due  in  part  to  more  truthftd  labeling  practiced  since 
1905. 

The  following  tabulation^,  representing  448  samples,  illustrates 
this  point.  No  figures  are  given  subsequent  to  1909,  because  no 
representative  number  of  samples  has  been  examined  in  any  one 
year. 


Table  I.- 

—Summary  of 

Inspections  of 

Olive  Oil. 

From 
Grocers 

Year 

Not  found 
adulterated 

Adulterated 

Per  cent. 
Adulterated 

1897 

37 

23 

38.3 

1900 

45 

28 

38.4 

1905 

19 

0 

0.0 

1906 

25 

0 

0.0 

1907 

7 

0 

0.0 

1909 

44 

0 

0.0 

From 
Druggists 

1897 

13 

5 

27.8 

1900 

17 

13 

43-3 

1905 

21 

9 

30.0 

1906 

55 

II 

16.7 

1907 

65 

II 

145 

^  Leach,  Food  Inspection  and  Analysis,  p.  516. 
2  Conn.  Food  &  Drug  Report,  1909-10,  p.  214. 


2o6  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION    BULLETIN    20I. 

The  adulterations  found  in  these  inspections  were  cottonseed, 
sesame  and  peanut  oils.  Such  admixtures,  as  we  have  noted 
above,  do  not  constitute  a  menace  to  health,  and,  if  properly 
labelled,  woiild  not  constitute  an  infringement  of  law. 

Products  sold  under  the  name  of  "Salad  Oil"  our  examinations 
have  shown  to  consist  wholly  or  in  part  of  cottonseed  oil.  Such 
products  are  legally  labelled;  they  do  not  purport  to  be  any 
single  oil  and  are  'sold  under  a  distinctive  name.  Our  ex- 
perience has  been,  however,  that  they  are  often  sold  upon  request 
for  olive  oil. 

No  oil  other  than  olive  should  be  sold  as  "sweet  oil."^ 

COOKING  FATS. 

The  fats  chiefly  used  by  our  grandmothers  for  culinary'-  purposes 
were  the  rendered  fats  of  hogs  or  beef,  known  respectively  as  lard 
or  beef  suet.  To-day  the  housewife  has  a  large  array  of  shorten- 
ing compounds  at  her  disposal.  These  nearly  always  appear 
under  trade  names  but  may  contain  both  the  animal  fats  mention- 
ed combined  with  a  vegetable  oil,  such  as  cottonseed  oil,  or  they 
may  be  entirely  of  vegetable  origin.  Other  oils  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  section  also  occur  in  these  compounds;  any  of  them 
are  adaptable  to  such  use. 

Our  examination  of  some  of  the  products  in  this  group  indicates 
their  essential  constituents  to  be  as  follows :  Cotosuet",  cottonseed 
oil  and  beef  fat ;  Cottolene^,  cottonseed  oil  and  beef  fat ;  Komo*, 
com  oil,  cottonseed  oil  and  a  harder  fat  like  stearin;  Waverly 
shortening\  beef  stearin  and  cottonseed  oil;  Crisco,  hardened 
vegetable  oil,  probably  cottonseed;  Vegetole,  vegetable  product 
containing  cottonseed  oil;  Kuxit,  vegetable  product  having  the 
character  of  cocoanut  fat;  Wesson  oil,  cottonseed  oil;  Mazola,  com 
oil.  A  sample  of  Lard  oiP,  said  to  have  been  used  for  deep  frying, 
was  found  to  contain  about  half  its  weight  of  mineral  oil.  This 
mixture  is  unique  for  food  purposes  but  common  as  a  lubricant. 

Recent  analyses  of  some  of  these  fats  are  given  in  Table  II. 

'  U.  S.  Food  Inspection  Decision  No.  139;  Conn.  Rules  &  Regulations 
No.  43. 

2  Connecticut  Food  Report  1896,  p.  23. 

'  Connecticut  Food  Report  1896,  p.  23,  1900,  p.  145. 

*  Connecticut  Food  Report  1906,  p.  122. 

*  Connecticut  Food  Report  1909,  p.  278. 
^Connecticut  Food  Report  1900,  p.  148. 


COOKING   FATS. 


207 


Table  II — Analyses  of  Cooking  Fats. 


No. 


Brand. 


u  ... 


o 


6  a 


^t 


Pi^ 


8164 
8165 
8166 
8167 
8183 
8184 


Wesson  Oil 
Mazola. .  .  . 
Vegetole. .  . 
Cottolene. . 

Crisco 

Kuxit 


% 
0.06 
0.00 
0.02 
0.02 
0.20 
0.31 


% 


% 
99-94 


0.38 
0.31 
o.  19 
0.13 


0.02 
0.08 
0.05 
0.03 


100 
99 
99 
99 
99 


% 
0.06 
o.  17 
0.15 

O.  10 

0.18 
0.15 


1 .04 

0.86 

0.45 
0.48 
0.50 

5  ■  03 


Red 

Yellow 
Deep  Red 
Deep  Red 
Br.  yellow 
Yellow 


Br.  yellow 
Red  brown 
Red  brown 
Red  brown 
Br.  yellow 
Yellow 


The  analyses  show  that  the  samples  contain  only  traces  of 
moisture  and  are  practically  all  fat.  The  percentage  of  free  fatty 
acid  is  very  low.  These  are  the  substances  prominently  concerned 
in  the  changes  which  result  in  rancidity.  A  rancid  fat  or  oil  is 
one  in  which  a  part  of  the  fat  has  been  decomposed,  by  enzyme 
action  it  is  believed,  into  free  fatty  acids  and  glycerine.  The 
action  of  light  and  air  upon  th'^se  fatty  acids  produces  the  sub- 
stances of  disagreeable  taste  and  odor  associated  with  rancidity. 
An  excess  of  free  fatty  acids  does  not  necessarily  indicate  rancidity, 
but  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  rancidity  to  occur. 

Edible  fats  and  oils  should  be  kept  in  securely  closed  containers 
protected  from  sunlight.  Oils  are  more  likely  to  become  rancid 
than  are  solid  fats.  It  is  claimed  as  one  of  the  advantages  of 
hydrogenation  that  fats  so  treated  remain  wholesome  for  long 
periods. 

Particular  attention,  with  respect  to  the  presence  of  animal  fats, 
has  been  given  to  those  products  claiming  to  be  of  purely  vegetable 
origin.  In  none  of  them  have  we  found  evidence  of  cholesterol, 
a  characteristic  constituent  of  animal  fats.  The  following  appear 
to  be  pure  vegetable  products,  as  claimed:  Wesson  oil;  Mazola; 
Vegetole;    Crisco;    Kuxit. 

There  are  few  precise  physical  or  chemical  data  by  which  to 
decide  the  desirability  of  one  fat  over  another  for  culinary  use. 
The  housewife  learns  and  decides  by  her  experience  which  to  use, 
judging  by  the  results  obtained.  One  thing  she  avoids,  however, 
is  the  use  of  "smoky"  fats  for  deep  frying.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  such  a  fat  or  oil  "smokes"  and  gives  off  disagreeable  vapors. 


2o8  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION   BULLETIN    20I. 

which  will  be  absorbed  by  the  food,  before  the  desired  cooking 
temperatiire  is  obtained.  A  desirable  fat  for  deep  frying,  then, 
should  have  a  sufficiently  high  burning  point  or  smoke  test. 
Blunt  and  Feeney^  have  determined  this  for  a  number  of  common 
cooking  fats  and  their  results  are  given  here  as  of  interest.  The 
temperatures  given  indicate  the  degree  of  heat  acquired  by  the 
fat  or  oil  at  the  time  it  begins  to  give  off  visible  fumes  or  vapors. 
The  degrees  have  been  converted  to  the  ordinary  Fahrenheit  scale. 

Table  III. 

Cottonseed  oil  (Wesson) 451 

Snowdrift 450 

Crisco 448° 

Leaf  lard 430 

Butter  fat 406° 

Leaf  lard  heated  5  hrs 405 

Bulk  lard 381° 

Olive  oil 347° 

Peanut  oil  (i) 323° 

Peanut  oil  (2) 300° 

Cocoanut  oil 277 

The  recognized  temperatiire  for  deep  frying  is  350  — 400  F. 
It  is  apparent,  then,  that  those  fats  decomposing  below  that 
temperature  are  not  well  suited  to  this  particular  purpose. 

BUTTER  AND  ITS  SUBSTITUTES. 

Butter.  A  typical  butter  contains  about  15%  of  water  and  85% 
of  solids,  of  which  82.5%  is  milk  fat  and  2.5%  other  milk  constitu- 
ents and  salt. 

Renovated  Butter.  Renovated  butter  is  iriade  by  melting  genuine 
butter  and  separating  the  curd  and  water-soluble  constituents  of 
the  original  product.  The  fat  so  obtained  is  rechumed  \\dth  milk 
or  cream,  or  both,  and  no  other  substances  added  except  salt. 
Like  butter,  it  must  contain  82.5%  of  milk  fat.  The  object  of 
this  treatment  is  to  save  butter  which  has  become  rancid  or  fallen 
oflE  from  prime  quality. 

Oleomargarine  is  a  product  which  varies  as  to  proportionality  of 
ingredients  and,  to  some  extent,  as  to  character  of  ingredients, 
but  generally  it  consists  of  oleo  oil,  neutral  lard,  butter,  milk, 
cream  and  salt.  Vegetable  oils,  such  as  cottonseed  oil,  may  be 
used  in  the  mixtvire. 


'Jour,  of  Home  Economics,  7,  p.  535,  1915. 


BUTTER   AND    ITS    SUBSTITUTES.  209 

Rigid  rules  are  in  force  to  govern  the  sale  of  both  renovated 
butter  and  oleomargarine,  in  order  to  protect  the  butter  industry. 
The  controversy  which  has  existed  for  many  years  concerning 
oleomargarine  and  butter  is  unfortunate,  as  each  might  well  have 
its  proper  place  in  the  trade.  The  tax  placed  upon  oleomargarine 
has  increased  the  price  to  the  consumer  for  this  perfectly  whole- 
some and  nutritious  product. 

Nut  Margarine.  There  have  quite  recently  appeared  upon  the 
market  a  number  of  brands  of  nut  margarines.  These  products 
consist  chiefly  of  cocoanut  fat,  with  admixtures  of  cottonseed  or 
other  vegetable  oils.  The  fats  are  churned  with  milk*  and  salted, 
as  in  the  preparation  of  butter.  Color  capsules  accompany  the 
package  for  the  use  of  the  consumer  if  he  desires  to  color  the 
product.  It  is  not  colored  by  the  manufacturer  as  he  is  required 
to  conform  to  regulations  similar  to  those  governing  the  sale  of 
oleomargarine.  The  coloring  we  have  found  to  be  the  vegetable 
color  annatto,  which  is  largely  used  for  butter  coloring. 

Our  analyses  of  some  of  these  products  are  given  in  Table  IV. 

The  analyses  show  some  variation  in  water  content  but  none 
contains  excessive  amount.  All  contain  over  82.5%  of  fat.  The 
ash  varies  considerably,  due,  in  all  cases,  to  the  salt  added.  The 
free  fatty  acids  are  within  normal  limits  for  these  products.  Other 
tests  must  be  interpreted  with  the  knowledge  that  hydrogenation 
modifies  them  very  materially.  Nos.  8169  and  8170  are  declared 
to  contain  0.1%  of  benzoate  of  soda;  they  did  not  contain  amounts 
in  excess  of  this  figure.  No.  8168  made  no  statement  as  regards 
preservative;   no  preservative  was  found. 

The  diagnosis  of  mixtures  of  this  kind  is  more  difficult  for  the 
reason  that  hydrogenation  changes  the  chemical  as  well  as  the 
physical  properties  of  fats,  so  that  their  response  to  the  usual  tests 
is  either  modified  or  destroyed. 

As  we  have  stated  elsewhere  in  this  paper,  nut  margarines  are 
supposedly  composed  of  vegetable  fats  only,  while  in  oleomargarine 
animal  fats  are  used,  with  or  without  fats  of  vegetable  origin.  As 
in  the  case  of  cooking  fats,  we  have  looked  particularly  for  evi- 


*  The  flavor  of  butter  is  due  to  the  action  of  lactic  acid-forming 
bacteria  in  the  milk  from  which  it  is  churned.  Nut  margarine  fats  are 
ripened  with  milk  to  which  a  culture  of  such  bacteria  has  been  added  to 
impart  the  flavor  of  butter.     [Pickard.    The  Am.  Food  Jour.,  Jan.  1918.] 


2IO  CONNECTICUT   EXPERIMENT   STATION    BULLETIN    20I. 

Table  IV— Analyses  of  Butter  Substitutes. 


i 

%. 

6 

t; 

u 

6 

Brand 

6 

i 

>< 

'A    0 

n.5 

6 

1)   4) 

c 

Si 

< 

'S 

0 

JS 

^ 

SO 

i;T3 

0.2 
T    4J 

0. 

'i^ 

S 

£5 

< 

£ 

£  S 

4j  rt 

c3 

j5 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Nut  Margarine. 

8168 

A  I  Brand, 
Downey  Farrell 

Co.,  Chicago. .  . 

10.84 

1-25 

451 

83.40 

0.45 

40.0 

7.00 

Deep  pink 

Brown 

8169 

Cocoanut  Brand, 
Nucoa  Butter  Co., 

Soho  Park,  N.  J. 

6.53 

0.69 

1.58 

91 .20 

0.39 

37-2 

7  50 

Yellow 

Brown 

8170 

Providence  Churn- 

ing Co.,  Prov.,  R.  I. 

11.28 

0.75 

1. 14 

86.83 

0.47 

39  0 

6.15 

Yellow 

Yellow 

Oleomargarine 

8171 

Lily,  Swift  &  Co.. 

1.67 

0.56 

0.41 

97  36 

0.74 

52.0 

1.50 

Deep  red 

Red  brown 

8172 

Premium, 

Swift  &  Co 

2-54 

0.63 

0.60 

96.23 

0.63 

49.2 

0.99 

Red 

Red  brown 

8173 

Gilt  Edge, 

John  F.  Jelke  Co. 

8.52 

1-25 

1.62 

88.61 

0.74 

49.2 

Pink 

Red  brown 

9994 

Good  Luck, 

John  F.  Jelke  Co. 

9.20 

I  .00 

3.08 

86.72 

0.50 

49-3 

Red 

Red  brown 

8175 

Silver  Churn, 

Armour 

4.90 

0.56 

1.44 

93.10 

0.80 

51.0 

1.30 

Deep  red 

Red  brown 

dence  of  animal  fats  in  the  nut  margarines  but  with  negative 
results.  There  is  nothing  shown  by  our  analyses  inconsistent  with 
the  claim  that  they  are  vegetable  products.  They  are  very  pal- 
atable preparations  and  may  well  be  substituted  for  a  part  of  the 
family  butter  supply,  thereby  conserving  animal  fats. 

MILK-BUTTER  MIXTURE. 

The  present  is  a  fruitful  time  for  invention  and  de\dce  designed 
to  appeal  to  public  economy.  Such  a  device  is  one  advertised  of 
late,  for  which  it  is  claimed  that  two  pounds  of  butter  or  table 
butter  can  be  made  from  one  pound  of  butter  and  one  pint  of  milk. 
While  the  fine  distinction  is  made  that  you  start  %vith  butter  and 
milk  and  produce  "table"  butter,  no  distinction  is  made  between 
the  commercial  values  of  the  two  substances.  Both  the  expressed 
and  implied  thought  is  that  from  one  pound  of  butter  at  (say)  55 
cents  per  pound  and  one  pint  (pound)  of  milk  at  7  cents  per  pint, 
two  pounds  of  butter  or  "table"  butter  are  produced,  valued  at 


food  Value 
Calories. 

Commerical 
Value. 

3478 

$0.55 

305' 

0.07 

3783 

I  .  10 

1892 

0.55 

MILK-BUTTER   MIXTURE.  211 

The  true  story  of  this  economic  idea  may  be  simply  told  by  the 
following  table : 

Substance.  Composition. 

I  lb.  Butter  85  parts  solids,  15  parts  water, 

82.5  parts  fat. 

1  lb.  Milk^  12  parts  solids,  88  parts  water, 

4.0  parts  fat. 

2  lbs.  Milk-Butter 

mixture  97  parts  solids,  103  parts  water, 

86.5  parts  fat. 
or  per  lb.  mixture  48.5  parts  solids,  51.5  parts  wa- 
ter, 43.3  parts  fat. 

^  One  pint  of  milk  may  be  called  one  pound. 
'  Basis  of  4.5%  sugar  and  2.8%  protein. 

Whatever  the  finished  product  is  called,  it  is  watered  butter,  as 
a  comparison  of  the  composition  and  food  value  of  the  finished 
product  with  the  original  shows.  As  to  the  commercial  value  of 
the  product,  if  it  is  worth  the  combined  value  of  the  ingredients, 
62  cents,  then  the  cost  to  the  consumer  per  loo  calories  is  practically 
the  same  as  in  the  original  butter,  1.6  cents;  if  it  is  worth  $1.10, 
then  the  consumer  pays  nearly  twice  as  much;  viz.,  2.9  cents  per 
100  calories.  The  two  pounds  of  mixture  will  "go  as  far"  as  two 
pounds  of  butter  in  the  same  sense  that  a  pint  of  milk  diluted  with 
a  pint  of  water  will  go  as  far  as  a  quart  of  milk.  The  same  economy 
will  be  effected  by  drinking  the  pint  of  milk  and  serving  half  por- 
tiens  of  butter.  This  device  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  ingenious 
method  for  serving  half  portions. 


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